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Thursday, May 19, 2016
Impact of Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) on the Quality of Social Existence of Rural Dwellers in Developing Economies The Ondo State (Nigeria) Agricultural Development Programme Experience
- Fasoranti Olayiwola Olujenyo is at the Department of Sociology, Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria.
Abstract
This study examines the impact of the
Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) on the farmers
in the rural
areas of Ondo state, Nigeria, West
Africa. It examines the impact of the ADP on the farming operations of
its target farmers and the adoption
of the ADP's agricultural innovation, the
farmer-related
factors and the organizational factors that are
associated with the impact of the ADP. A structured
interview
schedule was used to elicit responses from
144 contact farmers and 144 non-contact farmers using random
sampling
to select the non-contact farmers,
and systematic sampling with a random start to select the
contact farmers from the 24 cells that had been
purposively selected from the zones. Correlation
analysis
was used to test the hypotheses formulated. The
results show that the majority of the farmers (51.39 per
cent)
fell within the ‘medium’ impact
level score on the impact table constructed. About 32
per
cent fell within the ‘high’ impact level score,
while 16.67 per cent fell within the ‘low’ impact level
score.
Four indicators of impact were used for this study,
namely, farm yield, size of land cultivated, adoption
of innovation and articles of convenience. The
results revealed that there was a significant difference
in
mean yields of the farmers before and
five years after the inception of the ADP in all the four crops
examined.
There was also a significant
difference between the mean score of hectarage of land cultivated
by the farmers before and since the inception of
the ADP. Furthermore, there was a significant difference
in the mean score of articles of convenience
possessed by the farmers before and 10 years after the
inception
of the ADP. The level of adoption of
10 innovations taught by the ADP to the farmers was ‘medium’.
That is, more than 60 per cent of the farmers
adopted between four and six innovations. Five
farmer-related
factors positively and significantly correlated
with the impact of the ADP, namely, age of the farmers (r
= 0.58612), number of children (r =
0.35114), years of formal education (r = 0.46571), size
of family labour (r = 0.2967) and
size of hired labour (r = 0.46167). The number of wives
of the farmers did not have a
significant association with the impact of the ADP. The critical value
of
r at 0.05 = 0.194.
Source: http://irm.sagepub.com/content/2/2/213.abstract
Agricultural Development Programme and Rural Poverty in Nigeria: The Bayelsa State Experience
The paper set out to examine the problem/impact of Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP) on rural poverty and development in Nigeria
using Bayelsa State as a example. The study adopted the stratified
sampling method and Chi–square statistical technique on a sample of 3000
rural dwellers in Bayelsa State to establish the factors that
influences the probability of rural dweller or farmer/fishermen escaping
poverty. The result shows that the various components of Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP) for farmers and fishermen significantly
influenced their income and thus increased their standard of living of
rural dwellers. The findings also reveal that ADP for farmers and
fishermen significantly influenced the output agricultural products and
their prices, thereby moving rural farmers/fishermen away from the
poverty trap. The study also indicates that ADP extension
services significantly influence the quality and quantity of basic food
crops and hence improves rural poverty of Bayelsan. We therefore
recommend that there is need for improve funding of the programme as
well as the effective coordination of human and non–human resources for
the programme to achieve maximum result.
Source: http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEDS/article/view/5214
Source: http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEDS/article/view/5214
Contributions of Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs) to Rural Livelihood and Food Security in Nigeria
The
contributions of Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs) to rural
livelihood and food security in Nigeria were extensively reviewed. The
genesis and historical development of the ADP system were presented. It
was noted that the Agricultural Development Project (ADP) via the
Training and Visit (T and V) system started with the growth from the
first three enclave projects at Funtua, Gusau and Gombe which were
started in 1975/76 as enclave ADPs. Other generation of ADPs were
identified as the Accelerated Development Area Programme (ADAP), phased
ADPs and state-wide ADPs respectively. The critical mandate/objective of
the ADPs is to boost agricultural production as well as contribute to
rural livelihood and food security. In order to achieve this goal, the
programme implementation strategies of the ADPs were identified to
include a re-organised and revitalized agricultural extension system, an
effective farm input distribution system, on autonomous ADP management
unit, a rigorous monitoring system and a joint state/federal
responsibility. In addition, the components of the ADPs which constitute
the vehicle for achievement of her objectives are crop production,
on-farm adaptive research, farm input distribution, farmer training,
media support, infrastructural development, rural agro-industrial
scheme, staff development and programme funding. The ADP system was
noted to have made remarkable success in the agricultural and rural
landscape in Nigeria. The achievements and impact of the ADPs were
identified to be in the area of revitalized extension service, local
capacity building, rural infrastructural development, input
distribution, technology development, transfer and adoption, as well as
improved rural livelihood and food security. Significant ADP
achievements in the above focus areas have guaranteed programme
continuity for the past two decades in Nigeria. These achievements
notwithstanding, higher performance were constrained by undue political
interference by some state governments, cash flow instability due to
irregular payment of counterpart funding by some state governments,
rapid staff turn-over in most ADPs and adverse effects of some
macro-economic policies of government, among others. In order for the
ADP system to make greater impact, it is recommended that there should
be increased political support by the governments, increased
community/beneficiary participation, commercialization of more ADP
activities and more private sector involvement and intensification of
extension-research linkage.
Source: http://www.medwelljournals.com/abstract/?doi=aj.2007.503.510
Source: http://www.medwelljournals.com/abstract/?doi=aj.2007.503.510
What is Inga alley cropping?
Alley cropping is the growing of crops between rows of trees. Inga
alley cropping consists of growing crops between rows of Inga trees.
This has been found to increase yields. It is sustainable as it enables
the same plot to be cultivated over and over, thus eliminating the need
for the continual burning of the rainforest to get new fertile plots (slash and burn or shifting cultivation). Rainforest Saver is supporting Inga projects in Honduras and Cameroon.
The inga tree is native to many parts of Central and South America, but has been found to grow well in other parts of the world in the tropical rainforest belt.
When the trees have grown, usually in about two years, the canopies close over the alley and cut off the light and so smother the weeds.
The trees are then carefully pruned. The larger branches are used for firewood. The smaller branches and leaves are left on the ground in the alleys. These rot down into a good mulch (compost). If any weeds haven't been killed off by lack of light the mulch smothers them.
The farmer then pokes holes into the mulch and plants his crops into the holes.
The crops grow, fed by the mulch. The crops feed on the lower layers while the latest prunings form a protective layer over the soil and roots, shielding them from both the hot sun and heavy rain. This makes it possible for the roots of both the crops and the trees to stay to a considerable extent in the top layer of soil and the mulch, thus benefiting from the food in the mulch, and escaping soil pests and toxic minerals lower down. Pruning the Inga also makes its roots die back, thus reducing competition with the crops.
Not only do the farmers grow their basic crops of maize and beans, but also they now grow cash crops with this system. Previously this was not possible because when the plot was a good distance from the farmer's home he would not have been able to guard it, or give the crops all the attention they might need. But with the same plot being used continuously it can be near his home, thus allowing his family to help to tend and guard it, even when there are young children.
The inga tree is native to many parts of Central and South America, but has been found to grow well in other parts of the world in the tropical rainforest belt.
Inga alley showing ground free of weeds and covered
in mulch after pruning the trees. (Photo Copyright © FUPNAPIB,
Honduras 2006)
The Inga is suitable because- it grows well on the acid soils of the tropical rainforest and former rainforest soils,
- is a leguminous tree that fixes nitrogen (converts nitrogen into a form usable by plants),
- has mycorrhizae (special fungi that grow with its roots) that take up phosphorus allowing it to be recycled instead of being washed out from the soil,
- grows fast,
- has thick leaves that when left on the ground after pruning form a thick cover that protects both soil and roots from the sun and heavy rain,
- branches out to a thick canopy so as to cut off light from the weeds below, and
- withstands careful pruning year after year.
Pruned Inga stems. (Photo Copyright © FUPNAPIB, Honduras 2006)
For Inga alley cropping the trees are planted in rows (hedges) close
together, with a gap, the alley, of say 4m between the rows.When the trees have grown, usually in about two years, the canopies close over the alley and cut off the light and so smother the weeds.
The trees are then carefully pruned. The larger branches are used for firewood. The smaller branches and leaves are left on the ground in the alleys. These rot down into a good mulch (compost). If any weeds haven't been killed off by lack of light the mulch smothers them.
The farmer then pokes holes into the mulch and plants his crops into the holes.
The crops grow, fed by the mulch. The crops feed on the lower layers while the latest prunings form a protective layer over the soil and roots, shielding them from both the hot sun and heavy rain. This makes it possible for the roots of both the crops and the trees to stay to a considerable extent in the top layer of soil and the mulch, thus benefiting from the food in the mulch, and escaping soil pests and toxic minerals lower down. Pruning the Inga also makes its roots die back, thus reducing competition with the crops.
Pablo, a farmer, in his tall maize crop within his Inga alley. (Photo Copyright © Antony Melville 2007)
Research found that the main reason for the soil losing its fertility
with slash and burn farming was that the rain was washing out
phosphorus. The special fungi that grow with the Inga roots take up
spare phosphorus, which then goes to the roots and into the tree. As the
crops grow, so does the Inga. When the crops are harvested the Inga is
allowed to grow back. Once more it closes the canopy, is pruned, and
the cycle is repeated, time and again. When the tree is pruned the
leaves fall on the ground and rot down and phosphorus is released for
the crops. The fungi again take up spare phosphorus. Thus the cycle is
repeated time and again. An initial application of rock phosphate has
kept the system going for many years.Not only do the farmers grow their basic crops of maize and beans, but also they now grow cash crops with this system. Previously this was not possible because when the plot was a good distance from the farmer's home he would not have been able to guard it, or give the crops all the attention they might need. But with the same plot being used continuously it can be near his home, thus allowing his family to help to tend and guard it, even when there are young children.
Valuable cash crop of vanilla on living supports growing within an Inga alley. (Photo Copyright © FUPNAPIB, Honduras 2006)
Source: http://www.rainforestsaver.org/what-inga-alley-cropping?gclid=CjwKEAjwyPW5BRCC3JaM7qfW_FwSJACM3jz9x5Nq1qj0IzhKyf7vncZvgo51BLb6PdhXCWYcg61iWBoCl4Xw_wcB
Sustainable Development
- It is estimated that in 2015 still roughly 2.8 billion people worldwide lack access to modern energy services and more than 1 billion do not have access to electricity. For the most part this grave development burden falls on rural areas, where a lack of access to modern energy services negatively affects productivity, educational attainment and even health and ultimately exacerbates the poverty trap.
- In rural areas, only 56 per cent of births are attended by skilled health personnel, compared with 87 per cent in urban areas.
- About 16 per cent of the rural population do not use improved drinking water sources, compared to 4 per cent of the urban population.
- About 50 per cent of people living in rural areas lack improved sanitation facilities, compared to only 18 per cent of people in urban areas.
Background information
Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD) is the subject of chapter 14 of Agenda 21.
The major objective of SARD is to increase food production in a
sustainable way and enhance food security. This will involve education
initiatives, utilization of economic incentives and the development of
appropriate and new technologies, thus ensuring stable supplies of
nutritionally adequate food, access to those supplies by vulnerable
groups, and production for markets; employment and income generation to
alleviate poverty; and natural resource management and environmental
protection.
The Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) first reviewed Rural Development at its third session
in 1995, when it noted with concern that, even though some progress had
been reported, disappointment is widely expressed at the slow progress
in moving towards sustainable agriculture and rural development in many
countries.
Sustainable agriculture was also considered at the five-year review of implementation of Agenda 21 in 1997, at which time Governments were urged to attach high priority to implementing the commitments agreed at the World Food Summit,
especially the call for at least halving the number of undernourished
people in the world by the year 2015. This goal was reinforced by the Millennium Declaration
adopted by Heads of State and Government in September 2000, which
resolved to halve by 2015 the proportion of the world's people who
suffer from hunger.
In accordance with its multi-year programme of work, agriculture with a rural development perspective was a major focus of CSD-8
in 2000, along with integrated planning and management of land
resources as the sectoral theme. The supporting documentation and the
discussions highlighted the linkages between the economic, social and
environmental objectives of sustainable agriculture. The Commission
adopted decision 8/4 which identified 12 priorities for action. It
reaffirmed that the major objectives of SARD are to increase food
production and enhance food security in an environmentally sound way so
as to contribute to sustainable natural resource management. It noted
that food security-although a policy priority for all countries-remains
an unfulfilled goal. It also noted that agriculture has a special and
important place in society and helps to sustain rural life and land.
Rural Development was included as one of the thematic areas along with
Agriculture, Land, Drought, Desertification and Africa in the third implementation cycle CSD-16/CSD-17.
A growing emphasis is being placed on the Nexus approach to sustainable
rural development, seeking to realize synergies from the links between
development factors such as energy, health, education, water, food,
gender, and economic growth.
In this regard and as part of the follow up to the 2012 Conference on Sustainable Development or Rio+20, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA), in collaboration with SE4All, UN-Energy and the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), organized Global Conference on Rural Energy Access: A Nexus Approach to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec 4 – 6, 2013.Source: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/ruraldevelopment
The framework of development
The
concept of development
All rural extension work takes place within a process of development, and cannot be considered as an isolated activity. Extension programmes and projects and extension agents are part of the development of rural societies. It is, therefore, important to understand the term development, and to see how its interpretation can affect the course of rural extension work.
The term development does not refer to one single phenomenon or activity nor does it mean a general process of social change. All societies, rural and urban, are changing all the time. This change affects, for example, the society's norms and values, its institutions, its methods of production, the attitudes of its people and the way in which it distributes its resources. A rural society's people, customs and practices are never static but are continually evolving into new and different forms. There are different theories which seek to explain this process of social change (as evolution, as cultural adaptation or even as the resolution of conflicting interests) and examples of each explanation can be found in different parts of the world.
Development is more closely associated with some form of action or intervention to influence the entire process of social change. It is a dynamic concept which suggests a change in, or a movement away from, a previous situation. All societies are changing, and rural extension attempts to develop certain aspects of society in order to influence the nature and speed of the change. In the past few decades, different nations have been studied and their level of development has been determined; this has given rise to the use of terms such as developed as opposed to developing nations. In other words, it is assumed that some nations have advanced or changed more than others, and indeed these nations are often used as the model for other, developing, nations to follow.
This process of development can take different forms and have a variety of objectives. The following statements illustrate this:
Economic. The development of the economic or productive base of any society, which will produce the goods and materials required for life.
Social. The provision of a range of social amenities and services (i.e., health, education, welfare) which care for the non-productive needs of a society.
Human. The development of the people themselves, both individually and communally, to realize their full potential, to use their skills and talents, and to play a constructive part in shaping their own society.
Development has to do with the above three elements. It should not concentrate upon one to the exclusion of the others. The economic base of any society is critical, for it must produce the resources required for livelihood. But we must also think of people and ensure their active participation in the process of development.
Agricultural and rural development
This guide is primarily concerned with rural extension and with the livelihoods of farmers and their families. The concept of rural development must therefore be considered with particular reference to agriculture, since agriculture is the basis of the livelihood of most rural families. In the past two decades there has been increasing emphasis on rural development programmes and projects, and recognition that the development of rural areas is just as important as the building up of urban, industrial complexes. Development must have two legs: urban industrialization and rural improvement.
There are very strong reasons why resources should now be put into rural development. More than half the people of the world and the vast majority of the people in developing countries (Asia, Africa and Latin America) live in rural areas and gain part or all of their livelihoods from some form of agriculture. Most of these people are also still very poor and dependent on agricultural practices that have benefited little from modern technology. They live in isolated and often inhospitable places, with little access to the resources they need to improve their agriculture. Many lead their lives barely at subsistence level. Solely in terms of numbers of people, there is a very strong case for giving high priority to rural development.
It can also be argued that agriculture is a vital part of the economy of any country and that its development is critical to the development of the country's economy as a whole. This relationship can perhaps be best understood by studying the following diagram (see p. 4).
Agriculture's important role is one of production, both of food for the rural and the urban population and of cash crops for the export market, to earn foreign currency. In this process demand is stimulated for other products and services, and employment opportunities emerge to absorb the society's work-force. As the cycle develops, the increasing agricultural production causes an increasing demand for inputs, which ensure the resources required to maintain the agricultural production. Land is a basic resource for most countries and the exploitation of that resource in the interest of its citizens is one of a country's main responsibilities.
Agricultural production
This concern to improve a country's agricultural base, and thus the livelihood of the majority of its inhabitants, is usually expressed in terms of programmes and projects of rural development. However, while agriculture is rightly the most important objective in the development of rural areas, rural development should also embrace the non-agricultural aspects of rural life. There are many definitions and statements on rural development that attempt to describe succinctly what it is trying to achieve. Perhaps the one used in conjunction with the UN-sponsored Second Development Decade in the 1970s best illustrates the broad nature of rural development:
However, as can be seen from the above statement, the problems that rural development programmes attempt to solve are not only agricultural; such programmes must also tackle the social or institutional problems found in rural areas. Indeed, if the kinds of problems which rural development programmes confront are considered in very broad terms, they may perhaps be divided into two.
Physical. These are problems which relate to the physical environment of a particular rural area, e.g., lack of water, poor infrastructure, lack of health facilities, or soil erosion. Rural development programmes can study the nature and extent of the problem and propose a course of action.
Non-physical. Not all the problems which farmers face are physical in nature. Some problems are more related to the social and political conditions of the region in which the farmers live, e.g., limited access to land, no contact with government services, or dependence upon a bigger farmer. These problems are also very real even though they exist below the surface.
Farmers and their families face a whole range of problems
In thinking of rural development, therefore, a whole range of problems which the farmer confronts daily must be considered. Some of these problems will be physical or tangible, and relatively easy to identify. They can quickly be spotted by observation or by means of a survey and once the extent of the problem is understood a relevant course of action can be proposed. For example, fertilizer can be recommended to improve the production level of a certain crop.
However, not all of the problems that farmers face are physical nor can they always easily be seen. Many of these problems derive from the farmer's place in the social and political structure in the rural area. Farmers and their families are involved in a complex web of relationships with other farmers in the area and often these relationships bring about problems. Dependence upon a money-lender, for example, is a problem facing many farmers in developing countries. Farmers may also have little access to the resources necessary for development, nor any way of getting such resources. Finally, they may have had very little contact with rural development programmes or other government services, and may not know how to take advantage of such activities.
It should be emphasized that the problems a farmer faces are complex and not all of them are physical or tangible. With this in mind, the kinds of strategies which rural development programmes can adopt can be considered. The first point to make is that there is no one strategy which is relevant to the problems of all rural areas. Different areas have different kinds of problems and the strategy must be adapted accordingly. There are three broad rural development strategies to be considered.
Technological. Here, the emphasis is upon technological transformation of different aspects of the rural society, e.g., improved cropping practice or better water supply, by the provision of the inputs and skills required to bring about the transformation.
Reformist. In this strategy, importance is also attached to technological change, but with a corresponding effort to provide the means by which the farmer can play a bigger part in rural development, for example, through organizational development, or participation in rural development programmes.
Structural. This strategy seeks to transform the economic, social and political relationships which exist in rural areas in such a way that those who were previously disadvantaged by such relationships find their position improved. Often this strategy is carried out by means of an agrarian reform programme.
The above strategies are not presented as concrete models to be followed without question. Nor is it suggested that rural development programmes must adopt any one strategy. They are presented to show the range and mixture of strategies which a rural development programme can follow. A farmer's problems will probably demand different action at different levels if they are to be tackled in a comprehensive manner.
Principles of rural development programmes
Rural development strategies usually take the form of programmes which implement projects in a specific rural area. Such programmes form the basis of most government and non-government efforts to assist rural areas, and they include both agricultural and non-agricultural projects, e.g., maternal and child health programmes. Specialized staff supply the expertise required, and ministerial or other institutional budgets provide the necessary financial resources. External aid is also usually channelled into such programmes in the rural areas.
While this guide does not intend to examine the areas of programme planning or implementation, it does suggest a number of very broad principles which should be followed by rural development programmes. The content of these programmes is a matter for the specialists in the particular field, i.e., agriculture, health or water supply. It is important, however, for all such programmes to establish beforehand a set of principles to guide their activities. The following principles are suggested to implement rural development programmes.
Access. Try to ensure that the programme and its benefits can reach those in need, and beware of the consequences if some farmers have access to the programme while others do not.
Independence. Devise a programme which helps and supports the farmer but which does not make him or his livelihood dependent upon the programme.
Sustainability. Ensure that the programme's plans and solutions are relevant to the local economic, social and administrative situation. Short-term solutions may yield quick results, but long-term programmes that are suitable to the local environment have greater success.
Going forward. Technological aspects of rural development programmes should help the farmer to take the next step in his development and not demand that he take a huge technological leap. It is better to secure a modest advance which can be sustained than to suggest a substantial advance which is beyond the ability of most.
Participation. Always try to consult the local people, seek out their ideas and involve them as much as possible in the programme.
Effectiveness. A programme should be based on the effective use of local resources and not necessarily on their most efficient use. While efficiency is important, its requirements are often unrealistic. For example, the maximum use of fertilizer is beyond the means of most farmers. But an effective use of resources, which is within the capabilities of most farmers, will have a better chance of a wider impact.
The importance of extension
Within the framework presented in this chapter, the concept and practice of the central issue of this guide must now be examined: extension work in rural communities. Extension is essentially the means by which new knowledge and ideas are introduced into rural areas in order to bring about change and improve the lives of farmers and their families. Extension, therefore, is of critical importance. Without it farmers would lack access to the support and services required to improve their agriculture and other productive activities. The critical importance of extension can be understood better if its three main elements are considered:
KNOWLEDGE « COMMUNICATION « FARM FAMILY
Extension is not concerned directly with generating knowledge; that is done in specialized institutions such as agricultural research centres, agricultural colleges or engineering departments. Extension takes this knowledge and makes it available to the farm- family. Rural extension, therefore, is the process whereby knowledge is communicated, in a variety of ways, to the farm family. This process is usually guided and supported by an extension agent who works at the programme and project level, and who is in direct contact with farmers and their families.
To do this extension work, agents have to be trained in the different aspects of the extension process. One aspect of this training is giving the agent the technical or scientific knowledge required for the job. This is usually done during the agent's professional training; however, it is only one element in the process. The other two elements of the process are equally important. It is not enough for an extension agent to have technical knowledge; he must also know how to communicate this knowledge and how to use it to the benefit of the farm family. Training in extension, therefore, is an equally important aspect of the training of any agent who wishes to work with farmers.
Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e02.htm
All rural extension work takes place within a process of development, and cannot be considered as an isolated activity. Extension programmes and projects and extension agents are part of the development of rural societies. It is, therefore, important to understand the term development, and to see how its interpretation can affect the course of rural extension work.
The term development does not refer to one single phenomenon or activity nor does it mean a general process of social change. All societies, rural and urban, are changing all the time. This change affects, for example, the society's norms and values, its institutions, its methods of production, the attitudes of its people and the way in which it distributes its resources. A rural society's people, customs and practices are never static but are continually evolving into new and different forms. There are different theories which seek to explain this process of social change (as evolution, as cultural adaptation or even as the resolution of conflicting interests) and examples of each explanation can be found in different parts of the world.
Development is more closely associated with some form of action or intervention to influence the entire process of social change. It is a dynamic concept which suggests a change in, or a movement away from, a previous situation. All societies are changing, and rural extension attempts to develop certain aspects of society in order to influence the nature and speed of the change. In the past few decades, different nations have been studied and their level of development has been determined; this has given rise to the use of terms such as developed as opposed to developing nations. In other words, it is assumed that some nations have advanced or changed more than others, and indeed these nations are often used as the model for other, developing, nations to follow.
This process of development can take different forms and have a variety of objectives. The following statements illustrate this:
- Development involves the introduction of new ideas into a social system in order to produce higher per caput incomes and levels of living through modern production methods and improved social organization.Much has been written about the process of development, and the approaches which developing nations should adopt in order to develop. Reviewing this literature it can be concluded that a process of development should contain three main elements.
- Development implies a total transformation of a traditional or pre-modern society into types of technology and associated social organization that characterize the advanced stable nations of the Western world.
- Development is building up the people so that they can build a future for themselves. Development is an experience of freedom in deciding what people choose to do. To decide to do something brings dignity and self-respect. Development efforts therefore start with the people's potential and proceed to their enhancement and growth.
Economic. The development of the economic or productive base of any society, which will produce the goods and materials required for life.
Social. The provision of a range of social amenities and services (i.e., health, education, welfare) which care for the non-productive needs of a society.
Human. The development of the people themselves, both individually and communally, to realize their full potential, to use their skills and talents, and to play a constructive part in shaping their own society.
Development has to do with the above three elements. It should not concentrate upon one to the exclusion of the others. The economic base of any society is critical, for it must produce the resources required for livelihood. But we must also think of people and ensure their active participation in the process of development.
Agricultural and rural development
This guide is primarily concerned with rural extension and with the livelihoods of farmers and their families. The concept of rural development must therefore be considered with particular reference to agriculture, since agriculture is the basis of the livelihood of most rural families. In the past two decades there has been increasing emphasis on rural development programmes and projects, and recognition that the development of rural areas is just as important as the building up of urban, industrial complexes. Development must have two legs: urban industrialization and rural improvement.
There are very strong reasons why resources should now be put into rural development. More than half the people of the world and the vast majority of the people in developing countries (Asia, Africa and Latin America) live in rural areas and gain part or all of their livelihoods from some form of agriculture. Most of these people are also still very poor and dependent on agricultural practices that have benefited little from modern technology. They live in isolated and often inhospitable places, with little access to the resources they need to improve their agriculture. Many lead their lives barely at subsistence level. Solely in terms of numbers of people, there is a very strong case for giving high priority to rural development.
It can also be argued that agriculture is a vital part of the economy of any country and that its development is critical to the development of the country's economy as a whole. This relationship can perhaps be best understood by studying the following diagram (see p. 4).
Agriculture's important role is one of production, both of food for the rural and the urban population and of cash crops for the export market, to earn foreign currency. In this process demand is stimulated for other products and services, and employment opportunities emerge to absorb the society's work-force. As the cycle develops, the increasing agricultural production causes an increasing demand for inputs, which ensure the resources required to maintain the agricultural production. Land is a basic resource for most countries and the exploitation of that resource in the interest of its citizens is one of a country's main responsibilities.
Agricultural production
This concern to improve a country's agricultural base, and thus the livelihood of the majority of its inhabitants, is usually expressed in terms of programmes and projects of rural development. However, while agriculture is rightly the most important objective in the development of rural areas, rural development should also embrace the non-agricultural aspects of rural life. There are many definitions and statements on rural development that attempt to describe succinctly what it is trying to achieve. Perhaps the one used in conjunction with the UN-sponsored Second Development Decade in the 1970s best illustrates the broad nature of rural development:
- The Second Development Decade equates rural development with the far-reaching transformation of the social and economic structures, institutions, relationships and processes in any rural area. It conceives the goals of rural development not simply as agricultural and economic growth in the narrow sense but as balanced social and economic development.Rural development is a process integrated with economic and social objectives, which must seek to transform rural society and provide a better and more secure livelihood for rural people. Rural development, therefore, is a process of analysis, problem identification and the proposal of relevant solutions. This process is usually encompassed within a programme or a project which seeks to tackle the problem identified.
However, as can be seen from the above statement, the problems that rural development programmes attempt to solve are not only agricultural; such programmes must also tackle the social or institutional problems found in rural areas. Indeed, if the kinds of problems which rural development programmes confront are considered in very broad terms, they may perhaps be divided into two.
Physical. These are problems which relate to the physical environment of a particular rural area, e.g., lack of water, poor infrastructure, lack of health facilities, or soil erosion. Rural development programmes can study the nature and extent of the problem and propose a course of action.
Non-physical. Not all the problems which farmers face are physical in nature. Some problems are more related to the social and political conditions of the region in which the farmers live, e.g., limited access to land, no contact with government services, or dependence upon a bigger farmer. These problems are also very real even though they exist below the surface.
Farmers and their families face a whole range of problems
In thinking of rural development, therefore, a whole range of problems which the farmer confronts daily must be considered. Some of these problems will be physical or tangible, and relatively easy to identify. They can quickly be spotted by observation or by means of a survey and once the extent of the problem is understood a relevant course of action can be proposed. For example, fertilizer can be recommended to improve the production level of a certain crop.
However, not all of the problems that farmers face are physical nor can they always easily be seen. Many of these problems derive from the farmer's place in the social and political structure in the rural area. Farmers and their families are involved in a complex web of relationships with other farmers in the area and often these relationships bring about problems. Dependence upon a money-lender, for example, is a problem facing many farmers in developing countries. Farmers may also have little access to the resources necessary for development, nor any way of getting such resources. Finally, they may have had very little contact with rural development programmes or other government services, and may not know how to take advantage of such activities.
It should be emphasized that the problems a farmer faces are complex and not all of them are physical or tangible. With this in mind, the kinds of strategies which rural development programmes can adopt can be considered. The first point to make is that there is no one strategy which is relevant to the problems of all rural areas. Different areas have different kinds of problems and the strategy must be adapted accordingly. There are three broad rural development strategies to be considered.
Technological. Here, the emphasis is upon technological transformation of different aspects of the rural society, e.g., improved cropping practice or better water supply, by the provision of the inputs and skills required to bring about the transformation.
Reformist. In this strategy, importance is also attached to technological change, but with a corresponding effort to provide the means by which the farmer can play a bigger part in rural development, for example, through organizational development, or participation in rural development programmes.
Structural. This strategy seeks to transform the economic, social and political relationships which exist in rural areas in such a way that those who were previously disadvantaged by such relationships find their position improved. Often this strategy is carried out by means of an agrarian reform programme.
The above strategies are not presented as concrete models to be followed without question. Nor is it suggested that rural development programmes must adopt any one strategy. They are presented to show the range and mixture of strategies which a rural development programme can follow. A farmer's problems will probably demand different action at different levels if they are to be tackled in a comprehensive manner.
Principles of rural development programmes
Rural development strategies usually take the form of programmes which implement projects in a specific rural area. Such programmes form the basis of most government and non-government efforts to assist rural areas, and they include both agricultural and non-agricultural projects, e.g., maternal and child health programmes. Specialized staff supply the expertise required, and ministerial or other institutional budgets provide the necessary financial resources. External aid is also usually channelled into such programmes in the rural areas.
While this guide does not intend to examine the areas of programme planning or implementation, it does suggest a number of very broad principles which should be followed by rural development programmes. The content of these programmes is a matter for the specialists in the particular field, i.e., agriculture, health or water supply. It is important, however, for all such programmes to establish beforehand a set of principles to guide their activities. The following principles are suggested to implement rural development programmes.
Access. Try to ensure that the programme and its benefits can reach those in need, and beware of the consequences if some farmers have access to the programme while others do not.
Independence. Devise a programme which helps and supports the farmer but which does not make him or his livelihood dependent upon the programme.
Sustainability. Ensure that the programme's plans and solutions are relevant to the local economic, social and administrative situation. Short-term solutions may yield quick results, but long-term programmes that are suitable to the local environment have greater success.
Going forward. Technological aspects of rural development programmes should help the farmer to take the next step in his development and not demand that he take a huge technological leap. It is better to secure a modest advance which can be sustained than to suggest a substantial advance which is beyond the ability of most.
Participation. Always try to consult the local people, seek out their ideas and involve them as much as possible in the programme.
Effectiveness. A programme should be based on the effective use of local resources and not necessarily on their most efficient use. While efficiency is important, its requirements are often unrealistic. For example, the maximum use of fertilizer is beyond the means of most farmers. But an effective use of resources, which is within the capabilities of most farmers, will have a better chance of a wider impact.
The importance of extension
Within the framework presented in this chapter, the concept and practice of the central issue of this guide must now be examined: extension work in rural communities. Extension is essentially the means by which new knowledge and ideas are introduced into rural areas in order to bring about change and improve the lives of farmers and their families. Extension, therefore, is of critical importance. Without it farmers would lack access to the support and services required to improve their agriculture and other productive activities. The critical importance of extension can be understood better if its three main elements are considered:
KNOWLEDGE « COMMUNICATION « FARM FAMILY
Extension is not concerned directly with generating knowledge; that is done in specialized institutions such as agricultural research centres, agricultural colleges or engineering departments. Extension takes this knowledge and makes it available to the farm- family. Rural extension, therefore, is the process whereby knowledge is communicated, in a variety of ways, to the farm family. This process is usually guided and supported by an extension agent who works at the programme and project level, and who is in direct contact with farmers and their families.
To do this extension work, agents have to be trained in the different aspects of the extension process. One aspect of this training is giving the agent the technical or scientific knowledge required for the job. This is usually done during the agent's professional training; however, it is only one element in the process. The other two elements of the process are equally important. It is not enough for an extension agent to have technical knowledge; he must also know how to communicate this knowledge and how to use it to the benefit of the farm family. Training in extension, therefore, is an equally important aspect of the training of any agent who wishes to work with farmers.
Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e02.htm
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